The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere The Northern Hemisphere is the half of a planet that is north of equator—the word hemisphere literally means 'half sphere'. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator. Earth's northern hemisphere contains most of its land area and most of its human population and mostly in the Arctic The Arctic is the region around the Earth's North Pole, opposite the Antarctic region around the South Pole. The Arctic includes the Arctic Ocean (which overlies the North Pole) and parts of Canada, Greenland (a territory of Denmark), Russia, the United States (Alaska), Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Finland north polar The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is, subject to the caveats explained below, defined as the point in the northern hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets the Earth's surface. It should not be confused with the North Magnetic Pole region, is the smallest, and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (~3.61 X 1014 m2) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas divisions.^[1] The International Hydrographic Organization The International Hydrographic Organization was originally established in 1921 as the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). The present name was adopted in 1970 as a result of a revised international agreement among member nations. However, the former name International Hydrographic Bureau was retained for the IHO's administrative body of three (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers Oceanography , also called oceanology or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea, classifying it as one of the mediterranean seas In oceanography, a mediterranean sea is a mostly enclosed sea that has limited exchange of deep water with outer oceans and where the water circulation is dominated by salinity and temperature differences rather than winds of the Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about 106,400,000 square kilometres , it covers approximately twenty percent of the Earth's surface and about twenty-six percent of its water surface area. The first part of its name refers to the Atlas of Greek mythology, making the Atlantic the ".^[2] Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost lobe of the all-encompassing World Ocean The World Ocean, world ocean, or global ocean is the interconnected system of the earth's oceanic waters, and comprises the bulk of the hydrosphere.

Almost completely surrounded by Eurasia Eurasia is a large landmass covering about 52,990,000 km2 or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface (36.2% of the land area). Often considered a single continent, Eurasia comprises the traditional continents of Europe and Asia (with Eurasia being a portmanteau of the two), concepts which date back to classical antiquity and the borders for which are and North America North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the southeast, the Arctic Ocean is partly covered by sea ice Sea ice is largely formed from seawater that freezes. Because the oceans consist of salt water, this occurs below the freezing point of pure water, at about -1.8 °C throughout the year^[3] (and almost completely in winter). The Arctic Ocean's temperature Historically, two equivalent concepts of temperature have developed, the thermodynamic description and a microscopic explanation based on statistical physics. Since thermodynamics deals entirely with macroscopic measurements, the thermodynamic definition of temperature, first stated by Lord Kelvin, is stated entirely in empirical, measurable and salinity Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. It is a general term used to describe the levels of different salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium and calcium sulfates, and bicarbonates. Salinity in Australian English and North American English may also refer to the salt content of soil vary seasonally A season is a division of the year, marked by changes in weather, ecology, and hours of daylight as the ice Ice, technically, is one of the 15 known crystalline phases of water. In non-scientific contexts, the term usually means ice Ih, which is known to be the most abundant of these solid phases. It can appear transparent or opaque bluish-white colour, depending on the presence of impurities or air inclusions. The addition of other materials such as cover melts and freezes;^[4] its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid, that occurs only on the surface of a liquid. The other type of vaporization is boiling, that instead occurs on the entire mass of the liquid. Evaporation is also part of the water cycle, heavy freshwater Freshwater or fresh water is naturally occurring water on the Earth's surface in bogs, ponds, lakes, rivers and streams, and underground as groundwater in aquifers and underground streams. Freshwater is characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term specifically excludes seawater and inflow from rivers A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea, or another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill; there is no and streams A stream is a body of water with a current, confined within a bed and stream banks. Depending on its locale or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to as a branch, brook, beck, burn, creek, crick, kill, lick, rill, river syke, bayou, rivulet, streamage, wash, run or runnel. In some countries or communities a stream may be defined by, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%.^[1] The National Snow and Ice Data Center The National Snow and Ice Data Center, or NSIDC, is a United States information and referral center in support of polar and cryospheric research. NSIDC archives and distributes digital and analog snow and ice data and also maintains information about snow cover, avalanches, glaciers, ice sheets, freshwater ice, sea ice, ground ice, permafrost, (NSIDC) use satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years.

Geography

The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km² (5,427,000 sq mi), almost the size of Russia Russia (pronounced /ˈrʌʃə/ ; Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈraʦəjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal.^[5] The coastline is 45,390 km (28,200 mi) long.^[5] It is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland b. ^ Greenland, the Faeroes and Iceland were formally Norwegian possessions until 1814 despite 400 years of Danish monarchy beforehand, and by several islands An island or isle (/ˈaɪl/) is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls are called islets. A key or cay is another name for a small island or islet. An island in a river or lake may be called an eyot, /ˈaɪ.ət/. A grouping of geographically or geologically related.

It is generally taken to include Baffin Bay Baffin Bay is a sea connecting the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. It is 1,130 km (700 mi) across from north to south. It is not navigable most of the year because of the presence of large numbers of icebergs, Barents Sea Barents Sea is a part of the Arctic Ocean located north of Norway and Russia. Known in the Middle Ages as the Murman Sea, the sea takes its current name from the Dutch navigator Willem Barents. It is a rather deep shelf sea (average depth 760 feet (230 m) and maximum depth 1,480 feet (450 m) ), bordered by the shelf edge towards the Norwegian Sea, Beaufort Sea The Beaufort Sea is the portion of the Arctic Ocean located north of the Northwest Territories, the Yukon, and Alaska and west of Canada's Arctic islands. It is about 450,000 km² (170,000 mi²) in area. The sea is named after Irish hydrographer Sir Francis Beaufort, Chukchi Sea Chukchi Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded on the west by the De Long Strait, off Wrangel Island, and in the east by Point Barrow, Alaska, beyond which lies the Beaufort Sea. The Bering Strait forms its southernmost limit and connects it to the Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean, East Siberian Sea The East Siberian Sea is a marginal sea in the Arctic Ocean. It is located between the Arctic Cape in the North, the coast of Siberia in the South, the New Siberian Islands in the West and Cape Billings, close to Gytkhelen, Chukotka, and Wrangel Island in the East. This sea is bordering on the Laptev Sea in the West and the Chukchi Sea in the East, Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is the northernmost part of the North Atlantic Ocean immediately south of the Arctic Ocean. It encompasses some 1,205,000 square km . The average depth of the Greenland Sea is close to 1,450 m (4,750 ft). The deepest recorded point of 5600m has been found at Molloy Deep, in the Fram Strait between northeastern Greenland and, Hudson Bay Hudson Bay is a large body of water in northeastern Canada. It drains a very large area that includes parts of Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Alberta, most of Manitoba, southeastern Nunavut, as well as parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, and Montana. A smaller offshoot of the bay, James Bay, lies to the south, Hudson Strait Hudson Strait links the Atlantic Ocean to Hudson Bay in Canada. It lies between Baffin Island and the northern coast of Quebec, its eastern entrance marked by Cape Chidley and Resolution Island. It is 450 mi long. Its width varies from 150 mi (240 km) at its largest point, to a minimum of 40 mi (64 km), Kara Sea The Kara Sea is part of the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia. It is separated from the Barents Sea to the west by the Kara Strait and Novaya Zemlya, and the Laptev Sea to the east by the Severnaya Zemlya, Laptev Sea The Laptev Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean. It is located between the eastern coast of Siberia, Taimyr Peninsula, the Severnaya Zemlya and the New Siberian Islands. Its northern boundary passes from the Arctic Cape to point with coordinates 79°N and 139°E and closes at the Anisiy Cape. The Kara Sea lies to the west, the East Siberian, White Sea The White Sea is an inlet of the Barents Sea on the northwest coast of Russia. It is surrounded by Karelia to the west, the Kola peninsula to the north, and the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east by the Bering Strait The Bering Strait , known to natives as Imakpik,[citation needed] is a sea strait between Cape Dezhnev, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia, the easternmost point (169°43' W) of the Asian continent and Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, USA, the westernmost point (168°05' W) of the North American continent, with latitude of about 65° 40' north, and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is the northernmost part of the North Atlantic Ocean immediately south of the Arctic Ocean. It encompasses some 1,205,000 square km . The average depth of the Greenland Sea is close to 1,450 m (4,750 ft). The deepest recorded point of 5600m has been found at Molloy Deep, in the Fram Strait between northeastern Greenland and and Labrador Sea Labrador Sea is an arm of the North Atlantic Ocean between Labrador and Greenland.^[1]

Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization The International Hydrographic Organization was originally established in 1921 as the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). The present name was adopted in 1970 as a result of a revised international agreement among member nations. However, the former name International Hydrographic Bureau was retained for the IHO's administrative body of three defines the limits of the Arctic Ocean proper (that is, excluding the seas within the Ocean) as follows:^[6]

Between Greenland b. ^ Greenland, the Faeroes and Iceland were formally Norwegian possessions until 1814 despite 400 years of Danish monarchy beforehand and West Spitzbergen Spitsbergen (formerly known as West Spitsbergen; the German spelling Spitzbergen is often used in English) is a Norwegian island, the largest island of the Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. The island of Spitsbergen covers approximately 39,044 km² (15,075 square miles). This name was also formerly applied to the entire archipelago of [sic Sic is a Latin word meaning "thus", "so", "as such", or "in such a manner". It is used when writing quoted material to indicate that an incorrect or unusual spelling, phrase, punctuation or meaning in the quote has been reproduced verbatim from the original and is not a transcription error . It is normally] — The Northern limit of Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is the northernmost part of the North Atlantic Ocean immediately south of the Arctic Ocean. It encompasses some 1,205,000 square km . The average depth of the Greenland Sea is close to 1,450 m (4,750 ft). The deepest recorded point of 5600m has been found at Molloy Deep, in the Fram Strait between northeastern Greenland and.

Between West Spitzbergen and North East Land — the parallel of lat. 80°N.

From Cape Leigh Smith to Cape Kohlsaat — the Northern limit of Barentsz Sea Barents Sea is a part of the Arctic Ocean located north of Norway and Russia. Known in the Middle Ages as the Murman Sea, the sea takes its current name from the Dutch navigator Willem Barents. It is a rather deep shelf sea (average depth 760 feet (230 m) and maximum depth 1,480 feet (450 m) ), bordered by the shelf edge towards the Norwegian Sea [sic Sic is a Latin word meaning "thus", "so", "as such", or "in such a manner". It is used when writing quoted material to indicate that an incorrect or unusual spelling, phrase, punctuation or meaning in the quote has been reproduced verbatim from the original and is not a transcription error . It is normally].

From Cape Kohlsaat to Cape Molotov — the Northern limit of Kara Sea The Kara Sea is part of the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia. It is separated from the Barents Sea to the west by the Kara Strait and Novaya Zemlya, and the Laptev Sea to the east by the Severnaya Zemlya.

From Cape Molotov to the Northern extremity of Kotelni Island — the Northern limit of Laptev Sea.

From the Northern extremity of Kotelni Island to the Northern point of Wrangel Island — the Northern limit of East Siberian Sea.

From the Northern point of Wrangel Island to Point Barrow — the Northern limit of Chuckchi Sea [sic].

From Point Barrow to Cape Land's End on Prince Patrick Island — the Northern limit of Beaufort Sea, through the Northwest coast of Prince Patrick Island to Cape Leopold M'Clintock, thence to Cape Murray (Brook Island) and along the Northwest coast to the extreme Northerly point; to Cape Mackay (Borden Island); through the Northwesterly coast of Borden Island to Cape Malloch, to Cape Isachsen (Ellef Ringnes Island); to the Northwest point of Meighen Island to Cape Stallworthy (Axel Heiberg Island) to Cape Colgate the extreme West point of Ellesmere Island; through the North shore of Ellesmere Island to Cape Columbia thence a line to Cape Morris Jesup (Greenland).

Underwater features

An underwater ridge, the Lomonosov Ridge, divides the deep sea North Polar Basin into two oceanic basins: the Eurasian Basin, which is between 4,000 and 4,500 m (13,000 and 14,800 ft) deep, and the Amerasian Basin (sometimes called the North American, or Hyperborean Basin), which is about 4,000 m (13,000 ft) deep. The bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by fault-block ridges, abyssal plains, ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,406 ft).^[7] The deepest point is in the Eurasian Basin, at 5,450 m (17,880 ft).

The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Alaska/Canada and the Alpha Ridge), Makarov Basin (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Fram Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (Amundsen Basin) (between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes the Franz Josef Land).

Water flow

The Arctic Ocean contains a major choke point in the southern Chukchi Sea,^[8] which provides access to the Pacific Ocean through the Bering Strait between Alaska and Eastern Siberia. Subject to ice conditions, the Arctic Ocean provides the shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia. There are several floating research stations in the Arctic, operated by the US and Russia.

The greatest inflow of water comes from the Atlantic by way of the Norwegian Current, which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The East Greenland Current carries the major outflow.

Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing air temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold air that moves toward the equator, meeting with warmer air at latitude 60°N and causing rain and snow. This flow is the lower portion of the polar cell, the highest (by latitude) of the three principal circulation cells of the Earth's atmosphere each spanning thirty degrees of latitude. Marine life abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major ports are the cities of Murmansk, Arkhangelsk and Prudhoe Bay.^[8]

Shelves

The Arctic Ocean is encompassed by the Arctic shelves, one of which, the Siberian Shelf, is the largest on Earth.

History

For much of European history, the North Polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural. Pytheas of Massilia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to a land he called "Eschate Thule," where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail." He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "growlers", or "bergy bits." His "Thule" may have been Iceland, though Norway is more often suggested.^[9]

Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes Ruysch's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage to "Cathay" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts.

The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in this era added only small islands, such as Novaya Zemlya (11th century) and Spitsbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by pack-ice their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched in.

This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an "Open Polar Sea" was persistent. John Barrow, long time Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, promoted the exploration the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this.

In the United States in the 1850s and '60s, the explorers Elisha Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen part of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea (1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar ice cap is quite thick, and persists year-round.

Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in 1896. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard with air support.^{[citation needed]}

Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometres by ice floes.^[10]

Climate

Under the influence of the present ice age, the ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by continuous darkness (polar night), cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers are characterized by continuous daylight (midnight sun), damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow.

The temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater. Because the Arctic Ocean consists of saltwater the temperature must reach -1.8°C before freezing occurs. The density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper 100–150 meters of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form.^[11] In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent.

There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the ocean is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 20 in) over the frozen ocean.

Climate has varied significantly in the past; as recently as 55 million years ago, during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum the region reached an average annual temperature of 10–20 °C (50–68 °F);^[12] the surface waters of the northernmost^[13] Arctic ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms^[14] requiring surface temperatures of over 22 °C (72 °F).^[15]

Natural resources

Petroleum and natural gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, fish, seals and whales can all be found in abundance in the region.^[8]

The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark.^[16] It is significant for the global energy market because it may hold 25% or more of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources.^[17]

Natural hazards

Ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Permafrost is found on most islands. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and ships are subject to superstructure icing from October to May.^[8] Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although the Baychimo drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards).

Animal and plant life

Endangered marine species include walruses and whales.^[8] The area has a fragile ecosystem which is slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage.^[8]

The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic. Nutrients from rivers and the currents of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans provide food for the Arctic phytoplankton.^[18] During summer, the Sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to photosynthesize for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. However, the reverse is true in winter where they struggle to get enough light to survive.^[18]

Arctic jellyfish are also abundant in the waters of the Arctic.

Environmental concerns

The polar ice pack is thinning, and in many years there will be seasonal hole in the ozone layer.^[20] Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet's average albedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a positive feedback mechanism.^[21] Research shows that the Arctic may become ice free for the first time in human history between 2012 and 2040.^[22]

Many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.^[21]

Other environmental concerns relate to the radioactive contamination of the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russian radioactive waste dump sites in the Kara Sea^[23] and Cold War nuclear test sites such as Novaya Zemlya.^[24]

Major ports and harbors

Some notable ports and harbours from west to east include:

• United States
  • Barrow, Alaska
  • Prudhoe Bay, Alaska^[8]
• Canada
  • Churchill, Manitoba
  • Inuvik, Northwest Territories
  • Nanisivik, Nunavut^[25]
  • Tuktoyaktuk
• Norway
  • Longyearbyen
  • Kirkenes
  • Vardø
• Russia
  • Murmansk^[8]
  • Arkhangelsk
  • Labytnangi/Salekhard
  • Dudinka
  • Igarka
  • Dikson
  • Tiksi
  • Pevek

See also

• Arctic Bridge
• Fauna of the Arctic
• Extreme points of the Arctic
• International Arctic Science Committee
• Nordicity
• North Atlantic Current
• Subarctic
• Explorers of the Arctic
• Arctic sea ice ecology and history
• Seven seas
• The Chukchi Cap

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} Michael Pidwirny (2006). "Introduction to the Oceans". www.physicalgeography.net. http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html. Retrieved 2006-12-07.
2. ^ Tomczak, Matthias; Godfrey, J. Stuart (2003), Regional Oceanography: an Introduction (2 ed.), Delhi: Daya Publishing House, ISBN 81-7035-306-8, http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/regoc/
3. ^ Since the beginning of the 21st century, sea ice covers only 1/3 to 1/2 the surface of the Arctic Ocean at the end of summer.
4. ^ Some Thoughts on the Freezing and Melting of Sea Ice and Their Effects on the Ocean K. Aagaard and R. A. Woodgate, Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory University of Washington, January 2001. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
5. ^ ^{a b} Wright, John W. (ed.); Editors and reporters of The New York Times (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. pp. 455. ISBN 0-14-303820-6.
6. ^ "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition". International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf. Retrieved 6 February 2010.
7. ^ "The Mariana Trench - Oceanography". www.marianatrench.com. 2003-04-04. http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-02.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Arctic Ocean CIA World Factbook. 30 November 2006. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
9. ^ Pytheas Andre Engels. Retrieved 16 December 2006.
10. ^ North Pole drifting stations (1930s-1980s)
11. ^ "NSIDC sea ice". http://nsidc.org/seaice/intro.html. Retrieved 2010-02-10.
12. ^ Shellito, C.J.; Sloan, L.C.; Huber, M. (2003). "Climate model sensitivity to atmospheric CO₂ levels in the Early-Middle Paleogene". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 193 (1): 113–123. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00718-6.
13. ^ Drill cores were recovered from the Lomonosov Ridge, presently at 87°N
14. ^ the dinoflagellates Apectodinium augustum
15. ^ Sluijs, A.; Schouten, S.; Pagani, M.; Woltering, M.; Brinkhuis, H.; Damsté, J.S.S.; Dickens, G.R.; Huber, M.; Reichart, G.J.; Stein, R.; Others, (2006). "Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum". Nature 441 (7093): 610–613. doi:10.1038/nature04668.
16. ^ The Arctic's New Gold Rush - BBC
17. ^ The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons, by Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007
18. ^ ^{a b} Physical Nutrients and Primary Productivity Professor Terry Whiteledge. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
19. ^ Continued Sea Ice Decline in 2005 Robert Simmon, Earth Observatory, and Walt Meier, NSIDC. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
20. ^ Clean Air Online - Linking Today into Tomorrow
21. ^ ^{a b} Earth - melting in the heat? Richard Black, 7 October 2005. BBC News. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
22. ^ Russia the next climate recalcitrant Peter Wilson, 17 November 2008, The Australian. Retrieved 2 February 2009.
23. ^ 400 million cubic meters of radioactive waste threaten the Arctic area Thomas Nilsen, Bellona, 24 August 2001. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
24. ^ Plutonium in the Russian Arctic, or How We Learned to Love the Bomb Bradley Moran, John N. Smith. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
25. ^ "Backgrounder - Expanding Canadian Forces Operations in the Arctic". http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/media.asp?id=1785. Retrieved 2007-08-17. mirror

Further reading

• Neatby, Leslie H., Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters 1973 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6
• Ray, L., and bacon, B., eds., The Arctic Ocean 1982 ISBN 0-333-31017-9
• Thorén, Ragnar V. A., Picture Atlas of the Arctic 1969 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6

External links

• The Hidden Ocean Arctic 2005 Daily logs, photos and video from exploration mission.
• Oceanography Image of the Day, from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
• Arctic Council
• The Northern Forum
• Arctic Environmental Atlas Interactive map
• NOAA Arctic Theme Page
• Arctic Ocean entry at The World Factbook
• Daily Arctic Ocean Rawinsonde Data from Soviet Drifting Ice Stations (1954-1990) at NSIDC
• Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection
• NOAA North Pole Web Cam Images from Web Cams deployed in spring on an ice floe
• NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe
• Search for Arctic Life Heats Up by Stephen Leahy
• International Polar Foundation
• National Snow and Ice Data Center - Daily report of Arctic ice cover based on satellite data

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